The Fight for Fair Housing in Milwaukee: Vatican II Vindicates Discrimination

According to John T. McGreevy, “religion is both an institution and a tool for interpretation” (1994).

Social, political, and religious environments, such as the Post Vatican II society, played a pivotal role in the social justice movement for fair housing in Milwaukee, ultimately resulting in the Federal Fair Housing Act of 1968. This phenomenon was able to occur due to political theology.

Political theology results from theological beliefs, such as Christianity, being a major influence on social movements that ultimately create policy.

Political theology-based responses to the housing crisis in Milwaukee, such as Catholic nuns being arrested for the first time on U.S. soil to reach new heights of social activism, or what they might call, ministry in action (McGreevy 1994). This case study aims to explore the social and political-theological factors that informed the social justice movement behind the Federal Fair Housing Act of 1968.

The first category of factors contributing to the social justice movement for fair housing in Milwaukee were political & government-influenced events. The late 20th century influenced “racially explicit policy [within] federal, state, and local governments to [dictate] where whites and African-Americans should live” (Rothstein 2017: vii). This included events like the creation of the Public Works Administration, Zoning Rules, and imminent domain, all of which restricted African-Americans’ ability to live freely across the country. Consequently, African-Americans were unfairly associated with the degraded living conditions resulting from these policies (Jones 2018). This mistreatment of African-Americans throughout the Jim Crow Era caused feelings of injustice to rumble among African-American communities throughout the country. The mistreatment of African-Americans during the Jim Crow Era stirred feelings of injustice within their communities, leading to Black-led coalitions across the country. These coalitions, including the Chicago Freedom Movement housing marches, Birmingham’s Civil Rights Act of 1964, and Selma’s 1965 Voting Rights Act (Jones 2018), set the stage for Milwaukee to ring the bell for a social issue at the center of its heart - housing discrimination. 

The second category of factors contributing to the social justice movement for fair housing in Milwaukee was driven by social-economic changes. Milwaukee's industrial appeal in the North attracted thousands of African-Americans, resulting in a 13% growth in the Black population between 1945 and 1970 (Jones 2018). Due to population growth and residential segregation, Milwaukee became the city with the largest concentration of African-Americans in its downtown area in the entire nation (Jones 2018). Simultaneously, urban renewal projects displaced many African-Americans, reducing their opportunities for homeownership (Jones 2018). This factor contributed to the perfect storm to spark the Milwaukee housing movement to set fire.

The third category of factors contributing to the social justice movement for fair housing in Milwaukee involved the growth in theological interpretations within faith communities. Vatican II brought about significant cultural shifts for Catholics on an international scale. The Church adopted a preference for the poor and suffering, encouraging Catholics to become strong human rights advocates (Zengarini 2022). The event also promoted liturgy in the vernacular of the people and challenged church leaders to champion social justice causes, paving the way for Catholic faith communities to raise awareness about social justice issues in their surroundings.

The transformative impact of Vatican II led to the emergence of young leaders in faith communities of all racial backgrounds. International & national attention focused on “racial issues & urban poverty, provided a mechanism for engagement with the world” (McGreevy 1994: 224). This engagement became central in Milwaukee as well. For instance, Father James Groppi, a white Catholic priest and civil rights activist through the NAACP Youth Council, and Vel Phillips, an NAACP leader and lawyer, worked on legislative and grassroots efforts to enact fair housing ordinances within Milwaukee (Jones 2018). They launched their campaign shortly after a riot broke out in a Black neighborhood, emphasizing the timing of their advocacy and solidarity across racial lines. This Vatican II-inspired social justice work had a profound impact on the movement that eventually led to federal policy changes.

As a result of the factors mentioned above, including housing social justice advocacy in Milwaukee, the Federal Fair Housing Act was proposed and enacted into law. The Federal Fair Housing Act  “prohibits discrimination by direct providers of housing … whose discriminatory practices make housing unavailable to persons because of: race or color” (​​1968). Milwaukee's social justice movements, which primarily focused on the inequities experienced by racial minorities like African-Americans, directly influenced the inclusion of race or color in the law and the urgency behind its passing. Beyond race, the Federal Fair Housing Act also outlawed discrimination based on religion, national origin, familial status, disability, and other protected classes (1968). 

Political theologies during the social justice movement for fair housing and the enactment of the Federal Fair Housing Act of 1968 were rooted in the belief that people have equal and inherent value bestowed upon them by God.

Consequently, all people should have equal and quality access to housing, echoing the teachings found in Matthew 25:40 and Luke 18:1-8 (NRSV). This theme is evident in various political theologies, including that of Martin Luther King Jr. Although King is best known for his work in Selma in 1965 regarding the Voting Rights Act, his theory of nonviolence inspired leaders like Fr. Groppi in the cross-country civil rights and church movements. From his experiences with King, Fr. Groppi “brought back [to Milwaukee] the lessons he learned about militant nonviolence and the need to foster “creative tension” within the community” causing him to see the “opportunity to apply these lessons in a northern, urban context” (Jones 2018). 

Martin Luther King Jr.'s militant nonviolence, rooted in God's call to love one another, was applied to the fair housing movement in Milwaukee. King highlighted commitment cards during the Civil Rights Movement inscribed with the phrase "walk and talk in the manner of love, for God is love" (1964: 68), which not only directly quoted 1 John 4:16 but also connected the standard for social justice advocates to the greatest commandment - to love the Lord with all one's heart, soul, and mind and, as a result, to "love your neighbor as yourself" (Matt 22:37-39, NRSV). This commandment is illustrated through the story of the Good Samaritan, where race and ethnicity were shown to be nonfactors when extending the love of God to all people (Luke 10:29–37, NRSV). These biblical references informed King's political theology, the post-Vatican II call for social equity, and other theological frameworks, such as liberation theology.

One post-housing movement feminist theologian, Elisabeth Schüssler-Fiorenza, furthered King's call to church action for social justice issues. This ecumenical call to social justice action highlighted the role of the Church, including women leaders, in fulfilling all the demands and needs in the life of the church, requiring that all members of the church work together in solidarity (Schüssler-Fiorenza 1993: 17). King's political theology, rooted in the love of God and all people as God's children, served as a model for the church's engagement with social justice needs in society (Schüssler-Fiorenza 1993: 18). King's militant nonviolence exemplified this Christian mission in action - for the Church to address the social justice needs of society. This impact was profound in Selma and influenced political theology and leadership in Milwaukee's social justice movement for fair housing.

In conclusion, Vatican II was a major social-political movement that was the catalyst of the passing of the Federal Fair Housing Act.

Through faith communities and coalitions, new and pre-existing political theologies were able to empower the social justice movement against housing discrimination in Milwaukee through leaders like Fr. Groppi, who was inspired by the political theology of Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s interpretation of the  “blemished and scarred” body of African-Americans highlighted the “social neglect” in voting rights, civil rights, and ultimately housing rights (1964: 68). This Christian political theology mixed with the shift in the Catholic social justice expectations post Vatican II was the perfect environment for Judeo-Christian advocacy to be a majorly inspiring political theology for the context of Milwaukee. From these instances, readers can learn that political theologies often inform social justice movements which, when successful, impact public policy.

References:

The Bible. New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

The Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S.C. 3601 § (1968). https://www.justice.gov/crt/fair-housing-act-1.

Jones, Patrick. 2018. “Reckoning with the ‘Selma of the North’ on the 50th Anniversary of the Fair Housing Act of 1968.” Medium.com (blog). April 11, 2018. https://medium.com/@EllaBakersGhost/reckoningwiththeselmaofthenorth-6b72003e4050.

King Jr., Martin Luther. 1964. Why We Can’t Wait. London, UK: Penguin Books.

McGreevy, John T. “Racial Justice and the People of God: The Second Vatican Council, the Civil Rights Movement, and American Catholics.” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 4, no. 2 (1994): 221–54. https://doi.org/10.2307/1123850.

Schüssler-Fiorenza, Elisabeth. 1993. Discipleship of Equals:A Critical Feminist Ekklēsia-Logy of Liberation. New York: Crossroad.

Rothstein, Richard. 2017. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York; London: Liveright Publishing Corporation.

Zengarini, Lisa. 2022. “An Overview of the Second Vatican Council - Vatican News.” www.vaticannews.va. October 11, 2022. https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2022-10/vatican-ii-council-60th-anniversary-video-history-background.html.

Originally written September 29, 2023 for Social Justice, Public Policy and Political Theology taught by Professor Raymond Pierce.